Best Time To Install Solar Panels PA: Renewable Energy Systems Capture Sunshine To Produce Electrical Energy For Houses And Companies

Types of Solar Panels: Browsing Your Options

Have you ever paused to wonder why solar panels come in a lot of sizes and shapes? It resembles strolling into a sweet-shop, but rather of sweets, you're confronted with monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and thin-film ranges-- all vying for your attention. Each type brings its own rhythm to the symphony of solar power, yet picking the best one can seem like translating a secret language.

Monocrystalline panels, those sleek black beauties, frequently take the spotlight with their high efficiency and elegant appearance. What if your roofing system doesn't align completely with their sun-hungry nature? Get in polycrystalline, the blue-hued workhorse that offers affordability with a dash less performance. There's thin-film, light and flexible, nearly like the jazz of solar tech-- flexible, however with its own set of quirks.

Type	Performance	Resilience	Best For
Monocrystalline	High	Really High	Limited Area, Visual Appeal
Polycrystalline	Moderate	High	Budget-Friendly Installations
Thin-Film	Lower	Moderate	Big Surface Locations, Flexibility

Does the maze of options ever leave you questioning if you'll wind up with a mismatch? That's a valid worry. The incorrect panel could mean inadequacy or unforeseen expenses down the line. However here's the exciting part: Lumina Solar PA transforms this intricacy into clarity. They tailor the ideal mix of solar energy solutions that in shape your unique needs, whether your roofing slants awkwardly or your budget whispers warn.

Evaluation of your residential or commercial property's sunshine patterns and space
Custom selection from the prominent types of solar ranges
Setup that optimizes output and durability

Imagine a world where your solar investment sings in consistency with your lifestyle-- seems like a dream? Lumina Solar PA makes it a reality by managing every technical nuance and turning potential difficulties into stepping stones. So, why choose confusion when the sun uses clearness?

Setup and Upkeep

When it concerns photovoltaic panel installation, one may envision a simple setup-- panels perched nicely on a roofing system, soaking up the sun. However the fact is even more complex. Every roof requires a customized approach that appreciates its angle, material, and even microclimate. Envision disregarding these factors; you 'd be welcoming inefficiency camouflaged as simpleness. Lumina Solar PA comprehends these subtleties deeply and crafts setups that optimize energy capture while protecting the stability of your home.

Accuracy in Placement

Does the sun constantly shine where you anticipate? Never. Shadows dance unexpectedly, and even a small obstruction can slash your system's output drastically. Lumina Solar PA's specialists take advantage of advanced shading analysis tools-- far beyond easy line-of-sight checks-- to draw up ideal panel placement. This insight ensures that your investment doesn't develop into a glorified roofing ornament.

Upkeep: More Than Simply Cleaning

Upkeep frequently conjures images of a quick wipe-down. Yet, the genuine trick to longevity depends on subtle, technical care.

Regular electrical assessments to preempt deterioration in electrical wiring and adapters.
Keeping an eye on inverter efficiency to capture inadequacies before they grow out of control.
Seasonal modifications and checks to accommodate moving weather patterns.

These steps keep your system humming smoothly, changing solar power from a hopeful experiment into a trustworthy power source.

Specialist Tips for Homeowners

Arrange a professional system inspect every 12 to 18 months, even if you do not discover a dip in output.
Trim close-by trees before they end up being shading perpetrators.
Buy a quality monitoring system to track real-time efficiency and catch anomalies early.

Maintenance Job	Frequency	Impact on Performance
Panel Cleaning	Every 6 months	Up to 10% boost
Electrical Assessment	Every year	Prevents sudden failures
Inverter Inspect	Every 12-18 months	Guarantees optimum energy conversion

Lumina Solar PA's knowledge shines through their careful installation and maintenance method, ensuring your solar journey is not simply green however remarkably efficient - Lumina Solar PA. Their understanding of photovoltaic panel system optimization is what transforms rooftop selections into powerhouses of sustainability

Unloading Efficiency and Performance Aspects

Sunlight isn't just light; it's a dynamic dance of photons that photovoltaic panels must catch and transform. Have you ever wondered why some solar panels appear to soak up the sun better than others? The secret depend on efficiency-- the portion of sunshine converted into functional electrical power.

Efficiency isn't a static number; it ebbs and streams with temperature level, angle, and even shading. For instance, did you understand that solar panels lose about 0.5% performance for every degree Celsius above 25 ° C? That's why roof setups dealing with south with an optimum tilt angle can make a world of difference.

Factors Affecting Solar Panel Performance

Temperature level Coefficient: Cooler panels perform much better, a truth often overlooked in hot climates.
Sunlight Strength: Cloud cover does not simply dim the day, it dims output significantly.
Panel Orientation: East or west-facing panels can lose up to 20% effectiveness compared to those facing real south.
Shading: A single leaf or bird dropping can cause a disproportionate drop in performance.

Lumina Solar PA understands the delicate balance required to take full advantage of output. They know that even the slightest miscalculation in shading or panel angle can cascade into significant energy loss. Their professionals utilize advanced modeling to tailor each setup to your special environment, ensuring your system hums at peak efficiency year-round.

Pro Tips to Optimize Your Solar Harvest

Routinely clean your panels with soft water to avoid dust and gunk accumulation-- this can increase output by 5-10%.
Monitor panel temperature level; if overheating is frequent, think about ventilated mounting systems.
Usage micro-inverters or power optimizers to reduce shading effects on specific panels.
Arrange performance checks seasonally to capture and correct any output dips early.

Efficiency Element	Impact	Expert Insight
Temperature	Reduces output by ~ 0.5% per ° C over 25 ° C	Select panels with low temperature coefficients for hot climates
Shade	Can reduce system output by over 25%	Trim trees and optimize layout to prevent shading
Orientation & & Tilt	Approximately 20% performance loss if misaligned	Change tilt seasonally or invest in tracking systems

Ecological Effect and Advantages of Solar Panels

Imagine a world where roofs silently hum with the power of the sun, changing light into clean, renewable resource. Solar panels don't just sit there; they actively reduce the carbon footprint by switching out fossil fuels for photons. Here's the catch: the manufacturing process of solar panels can consume energy and resources, producing a short-term environmental stress. Lumina Solar PA understands these nuances deeply and ensures their panels are crafted with sustainability in mind, decreasing waste and maximizing effectiveness.

Why the Environmental Trade-Offs Matter

Have you ever questioned just how much energy it takes to produce the panels themselves? It's a balancing act-- what experts call "energy repayment time." Typically, photovoltaic panels pay back the energy invested in their development within 1 to 3 years, depending upon place and innovation. After that, every watt produced is pure, clean energy.

Reduces greenhouse gas emissions significantly over its life expectancy
Conserves water compared to traditional electrical power generation
Reduces air pollutants like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides

Hidden Environmental Advantages

Beyond the obvious, solar panels foster biodiversity by reducing dependency on coal mining and drilling. Lumina Solar PA leverages innovative photovoltaic technology that improves durability and recyclability, making every setup a step toward circular economy concepts.

Advantage	Effect
Carbon Emission Decrease	Cuts CO2 emissions by approximately 80% compared to fossil fuels
Water Conservation	Uses 90% less water than conventional power generation
Land Usage Optimization	Roofing systems and brownfields make the most of space, maintaining natural environments

Professional Tips for Making The Most Of Ecological Benefits

Pick high-efficiency panels to minimize the number of units required
Integrate solar with battery storage to smooth energy need and supply
Routinely tidy panels to maintain peak sunshine absorption
Go with regional installation specialists like Lumina Solar PA who prioritize environmentally friendly practices

Solar power isn't just about innovation-- it's a lifestyle shift. When Lumina Solar PA designs a system, they think about site-specific sunlight, regional climate, and even the embodied carbon footprint of the materials. Because ecological stewardship isn't an afterthought; it's the core of their mission.

Utilizing Solar Power in Pennsylvania

Pennsylvania is a state abundant in history and natural beauty, understood for its dynamic cities and picturesque landscapes. With a population that enjoys a mix of city and rural environments, Pennsylvania offers varied activities such as checking out the beautiful Appalachian Mountains, checking out cultural landmarks in Philadelphia, and enjoying outdoor leisure in the Pocono Mountains. The state is also making strides in renewable resource, including the adoption of solar power, which complements its commitment to sustainability and environmental obligation.

For those thinking about exploring photovoltaic panel options and discovering more about renewable resource solutions, Lumina Solar PA provides expert assistance and a totally free assessment to assist you comprehend the advantages and possibilities of solar power in Pennsylvania.

Dauphin County: Dauphin County , situated in the center of Pennsylvania, is known for its extensive history and vibrant community. Harrisburg, the state seat of government, serves as the government hub and a focal point of political, cultural, and economic activity.
Lebanon County: Lebanon County , Pennsylvania , is a region known for its extensive history and multicultural cultural heritage , situated in the center of the state . The county features a mix of metropolitan and rural areas , with attractions including antique sites , parks , and lively communities .
Lancaster County: Lancaster region in PA is renowned for its scenic farmland, Amish community, and deep colonial history. Visitors can enjoy scenic countryside, age-old crafts, and local markets offering fresh produce and handmade goods.
York County: The county of York , Pennsylvania , is known for its historic significance, lively neighborhoods, and scenic landscapes, including farmland and rolling hills. It offers a blend of cultural heritage and modern attractions, making it a notable region in the state.
Sullivan County: Sullivan County, Pennsylvania, is a picturesque rural area known for its lush forests, beautiful landscapes, and outdoor recreational opportunities such as hiking, casting, and camping. Its tranquil communities and natural beauty make it an perfect destination for those seeking tranquility and nature-based activities.
Lycoming County: Lycoming County located in north central Pennsylvania, is known for its beautiful vistas, including the Susquehanna River and gentle hills. It boasts a storied past rooted in agriculture, industry, and nature pursuits.
Northumberland County: Northumberland in Pennsylvania is known for its rich history, scenic landscapes, and multicultural communities. It offers a mix of outdoor recreation, historical sites, and small-town charm.
Columbia County: Columbia County in Pennsylvania is known for its picturesque landscapes, historic sites, and vibrant communities. It offers a combination of countryside charm and up-to-date amenities, making it a appealing place to live and visit.
Montour County: Montour County is a picturesque region in Pennsylvania famous for its scenic landscapes and deep history. It features a blend of rural charm and suburban growth, creating a a serene location to visit or live.
Snyder County: Snyder County, located in central Pennsylvania, is known for its beautiful scenery, fertile farmland tradition, and quaint community feel. The county offers a combination of outdoor leisure pursuits and heritage landmarks that reflect its regional identity and history.
Schuylkill County: Schuylkill County is a scenic region in eastern Pennsylvania known for its deep history in coal mining and charming landscapes. It offers a combination of outdoor activities, historical sites, and small-town charm.
Northampton County: Northampton County is a district in Pennsylvania famous for its storied history, lively communities, and beautiful landscapes. It offers a mix of cultural attractions and outdoor activities, making it a significant part of the state's varied geography.
Lehigh County: Lehigh County is a vibrant region in Pennsylvania renowned for its deep history and multicultural community. It features a blend of urban areas, commuter neighborhoods, and beautiful outdoor attractions.
Carbon County: Pennsylvania's Carbon County, is known for its rich coal mining history and scenic mountain landscapes. It offers a blend of outdoor recreation, historical sites, and small-town charm.
Bucks County: Bucks County, Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, is a historic region known for its picturesque towns, scenic parks, and extensive colonial heritage. It offers a combination of rural landscapes and lively communities, making it a favorite destination for tourists and residents alike.
Montgomery County: Montgomery County , Pennsylvania, is a bustling suburban region known for its historical , diverse communities, and wide-ranging parks and recreational areas. It offers a fusion of urban amenities and rural charm, making it a sought-after place to live and work.
Berks County: Berks County is a dynamic region in Pennsylvania known for its legacy, beautiful scenery, and multicultural populations. It offers a blend of traditions and outdoor activities, making it a popular destination for residents and visitors alike.
Monroe County: Monroe County, located in north east the state of Pennsylvania, is known for its breathtaking scenery, including the Poconos and several outdoor pastimes. It is a well-known location for tourists interested in snow sport, trekking, and various outdoor recreational pursuits, contributing to its vibrant regional economy.
Luzerne County: Luzerne County, located in north east Pennsylvania, is known for its wealthy history and diverse communities. The region features a blend of urban areas, scenic parks, and historical landmarks that reflect its industrial past and natural beauty.
Pike County: Pike County, located in northeastern Pennsylvania, is known for its beautiful landscapes, including ponds, woodlands, and rolling hills. It features a serene rural environment with a storied history and a developing community drawn to outdoor recreation and natural beauty.
Lackawanna County: Lackawanna County, located in northeastern PA, is known for its rich history and lively communities. It features a mixed landscape of metropolitan zones, parks, and picturesque outdoor spots.
Susquehanna County: Susquehanna County is a breathtaking region in northeastern Pennsylvania known for its luxuriant forests, rolling hills, and outdoor recreational opportunities. It offers a tranquil rural atmosphere with charming small towns and a deep history rooted in natural beauty.
Wyoming County: Wyoming County in Pennsylvania is known for its beautiful landscapes, sloping hills, and outdoor recreational activities. It provides a blend of rural charm and small-town communities, making it a peaceful destination for visitors and residents alike.
Wayne County: Wayne County is a scenic region in northeastern Pennsylvania known for its scenic landscapes, gentle slopes, and outdoor recreational opportunities. It features charming towns, historic sites, and a hospitable community that attracts tourists and residents alike.
Bradford County: Bradford County, located in northeastern Pennsylvania, is known for its green forests, scenic landscapes, and a rich history rooted in agriculture and industry. The county offers a range of outdoor fun and rural appeal, making it a significant area in the region.
Delaware County: Delaware County Pennsylvania, is a lively suburban area situated southwest of Philadelphia, known for its diverse communities and rich history. It offers a combination of urban amenities and beautiful landscapes, making it a attractive place to live and work.
Philadelphia County: County of Philadelphia is a heritage-rich and vibrant area in Pennsylvania, best known for covering the city of Philadelphia, the largest city in the state and cultural hub. It includes a diverse array of districts, historic landmarks, and business hubs that add to its significance in the state and the nation.
Chester County: Chester County, located in the southeastern Pennsylvania, is renowned for its scenic landscapes, historic sites, and bustling communities. It offers a blend of rural charm and suburban growth, making it a sought-after place to live and visit.

Independence Hall: Independence Hall in Pennsylvania is a historic site building where the Declaration of Rights and the American Constitution were debated and ratified. It stands as a emblem of U.S. independence and the birthplace of the USA.
Liberty Bell: The Liberty Bell serves as an notable symbol of American independence, well-known for its noteworthy crack and antique significance. Situated in Pennsylvania, it attracts numerous visitors eager to learn its role in the country's founding.
Gettysburg National Military Park: Gettysburg National Military Park commemorates the pivotal Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War, serving as a historic site and memorial. Visitors can explore extensive battlefield landscapes, monuments, and museums that honor those who fought and sacrificed located in Pennsylvania.
Hershey Park: Hershey Park is a renowned amusement park located in Pennsylvania, known for its thrilling rides, family-friendly attractions, and sweet-themed experiences. It offers visitors a delightful retreat with a variety of entertainment options amidst a picturesque setting.
Philadelphia Museum of Art: The PMoA is a renowned heritage establishment in PA, famous for its remarkable building design and vast collection of art spanning eras. Visitors can enjoy its notable steps, comprehensive galleries, and varied shows that feature both historic and modern art.
Pennsylvania Dutch Country: Pennsylvania Dutch Country offers visitors a peek into the deep heritage of the Amish and Mennonite communities through antique farms, time-honored crafts, and flavorful local cuisine. This region is renowned for its picturesque landscapes, vintage architecture, and lively folk traditions that showcase a singular way of life.
Eastern State Penitentiary: Pennsylvania's Eastern State Penitentiary in the state of Pennsylvania is a antique prison known for its grand architecture and pioneering system of solitary cells. It now functions as a historical site, offering guided visits that delve into its spooky history and famous inmates.
Phipps Conservatory and Botanical Gardens: Phipps Conservatory and Botanical Gardens is a beautiful horticultural site in Pennsylvania, hosting a wide range of plant collections and skillfully landscaped grounds. It presents visitors a calm retreat with greener gardens, glasshouse displays, and informative programs.
Fallingwater: Fallingwater is an renowned structure masterpiece designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, nestled over a waterfall in Pennsylvania's Laurel Highlands. It exemplifies harmony between human habitation and nature, seamlessly integrating into its surrounding landscape.
Valley Forge National Historical Park: Valley Forge National Historical Park in Pennsylvania preserves the site of the seventeenth to eighteenth-century continental army winter quarters during the American Revolutionary War. It offers visitors a view into the hardships faced by military personnel and features heritage monuments, reconstructed buildings, and scenic landscapes.
Andy Warhol Museum: The Andy Warhol Museum in Pennsylvania displays an vast collection of the iconic artist's works, including canvases, screen prints, photos, and movies. It acts as a vibrant artistic hub dedicated to protecting and exploring Warhol's significant contributions to contemporary art and modern culture.
Strasburg Rail Road: The Strasburg Line is a classic narrow-gauge steam railroad located in Pennsylvania, offering picturesque rides through the Amish countryside. It features retro locomotives and restored passenger cars, providing an authentic experience of 19th-century rail travel.
Longwood Gardens: Longwood Gardens in Pennsylvania is a stunning horticultural display featuring greening gardens, impressive fountains, and large conservatories. It offers visitors a breathtaking outdoor and indoor experience with its wide-ranging plant collections and expertly curated landscapes.
The Barnes Foundation: The Barnes Foundation is a prestigious heritage institution in Pennsylvania, famous for its noteworthy array of Impressionist style, Post-Impressionist style, and early Modernist movement paintings. It features a distinctive display method and an architecturally significant building designed by Tod Williams and Billie Tsien.
The Franklin Institute: The Franklin Institute is a prestigious science museum found in Pennsylvania, featuring interactive exhibits and educational programs that spark curiosity and advancement. It is a historical landmark dedicated to enhancing science literacy and involving visitors of all ages.
Pittsburgh Zoo & PPG Aquarium: The Pittsburgh Zoo & PPG Aquarium is a renowned / popular / well-known attraction / destination in Pennsylvania / PA, featuring / showcasing diverse / a variety of / numerous animal exhibits / wildlife displays and engaging / captivating / interesting aquatic displays / marine exhibits. Visitors / Guests can enjoy / experience a wide range of / variety of / broad spectrum of wildlife experiences / animal encounters, from lush habitats / verdant environments to interactive / hands-on / educational educational programs / learning activities.
National Civil War Museum: The National Civil War Museum in PA offers a thorough and engaging experience into the story of the Civil War, displaying broad exhibits, artifacts, and multimedia displays. It serves as a key educational resource and a poignant reminder of the country's past conflicts and sacrifices.
Presque Isle State Park: Presque Isle State Park is a picturesque peninsula in Lake Erie offering golden shores, birdwatching, and outdoor recreational activities. It is a well-known destination for sailing, fishing, and exploring nature in Pennsylvania.
The Amish Farm and House: The Amish Farm and House in Pennsylvania provides a glimpse into traditional Amish life with scheduled tours of original farm buildings and shows of Amish crafts. Visitors can enjoy the simplicity and tradition of Amish culture through engaging activities and exhibits.
Rodin Museum: The museum dedicated to Rodin in Pennsylvania displays an remarkable collection of statues by Auguste Rodin, set in a serene garden environment. It gives visitors a distinct opportunity to discover the artist's masterpieces and his creative process.
PNC Park: PNC Park is a scenic baseball stadium located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, renowned for its stunning views of the Pittsburgh skyline and the Allegheny River. It offers an cozy and historic ballpark experience, making it a must-visit destination for sports fans and visitors alike.
Philadelphia Zoo: The Philadelphia Zoo, located in PA, is one of the earliest zoos in the U.S., featuring a varied collection of over one thousand three hundred animals. It offers visitors interactive exhibits and educational programs focused on preservation and habitat conservation.
Kennywood Park: Kennywood serves as a classic amusement entertainment venue in Pennsylvania known for its classic rides and retro atmosphere. It offers a variety of attractions, including roller coasters, water rides, and entertainment for visitors of all ages.
The Betsy Ross House: The Betsy Ross House in Pennsylvania is a heritage site where visitors can learn about the story of Betsy Ross and her renowned role in United States history. The house offers guided visits, exhibits, and a glimpse into 18th-century American artisan skills and patriotism.
Hershey's Chocolate World: Hershey's Chocolate World in Pennsylvania serves as a well-known attraction offering visitors an immersive journey into the universe of chocolate, including factory tours, participatory exhibits, and tasty treats. It celebrates the legacy and enchantment of Hershey's iconic chocolate brand, making it a imperative destination for dessert lovers.
Flight 93 National Memorial: The National Memorial for Flight 93 in PA honors the passengers and crew who heroically fought terrorists aboard United Airlines Flight 93 on September 11, 2001. The site features a Voices Tower and a Names Wall, serving as a heartfelt commemoration to their courage and sacrifice.
Moravian Pottery and Tile Works: Moravian Ceramics and Tile Studio in Pennsylvania is a historic ceramics studio well-known for its handmade tiles and pottery, highlighting heritage Moravian techniques. Visitors can discover the vibrant, artisan craftsmanship that has been maintained since its founding in 1898.
Mutter Museum: The Mutter Museum in Pennsylvania is a well-known medical museum housing an extensive collection of anatomical samples, medical rarities, and historical medical instruments. It offers visitors a fascinating glimpse into the history of medicine and biological variation among humans.
Carnegie Museum of Natural History: The Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pennsylvania offers visitors an wide-ranging selection of natural objects, including dinosaur remains, minerals, and heritage objects. It provides captivating exhibits and informative programs that investigate the natural world and human history.
Lancaster Central Market: Lancaster Central Market is a famous public market in Pennsylvania, celebrated for its lively stalls offering quality produce, handcrafted crafts, and wide-ranging culinary delights. It has been a focal gathering place for residents and visitors alike, displaying the region's storied agricultural heritage.

Solar panel: Solar array act as components that change sunlight to electricity using PV cells. They serve as an green and alternative energy source, minimizing reliance on non-renewable energy.
Solar thermal collector: A solar energy collector is a device that absorbs sunlight to generate heat, generally used for water heating or room heating applications. It effectively converts solar energy into thermal energy, reducing reliance on conventional energy sources.
Solar thermal energy: Sun-powered thermal energy harnesses sun rays to generate warmth, which can be used for water heating, indoor heating, or electricity generation. It is a green and eco-friendly technology that reduces fossil fuel consumption and lowers greenhouse gas emissions.
Worthing: Worthing is a beautiful seaside town in West Sussex, England, known for its historic pier and vibrant promenade. It offers a charming blend of sandy beaches, cultural attractions, and outdoor activities perfect for visitors and residents alike.
England: The country of England is a historic and historic-influenced country in the United Kingdom known for its rich cultural legacy, famous sights, and bustling cities like the capital. It boasts a mixed terrain of rolling hills, ancient castles, and busy metropolitan areas that combine tradition with modern innovation.
Sunlight: Solar light is the organic illumination emitted by the sun, vital for existence on Earth as it supplies power for photosynthesis and influences climate and weather patterns. It also adds to our well-being by synchronizing our circadian rhythms and increasing vitamin D production.
Electricity: Electricity is a kind of power generated by the flow of electrically charged entities, primarily electrons. It fuels innumerable appliances and infrastructures, facilitating modern life and technological progress.
Photovoltaic: Solar technology converts solar radiation directly into power using solar panels composed of semi-conductor materials. It is a renewable energy source that reduces reliance on fossil fuels and helps mitigate environmental impact.
Electrons: Electrons are fundamental particles with a reversed electric charge that circulate around the nucleus of an atom, important for in chemical reactions and electricity. Their behavior and interactions influence the electrical conductivity and chemical properties of elements.
Direct current: Direct current is the single-direction stream of electric charge, usually produced by battteries, power supplies, and photovoltaic cells. It provides a constant voltage or current, rendering it essential for electronic devices and low-voltage.
Battery (electricity): A cell is a device that holds chemical energy and transforms it into electric power to power various electronic gadgets. It comprises several galvanic units, each housing anode and cathode divided by an electrolyte.
Photovoltaic system: An solar power system converts solar radiation directly into power using solar panels composed of solar cells. It is an green power option that minimizes reliance on fossil fuels and promotes renewable energy production.
Solar inverter: A photovoltaic inverter is a device that transforms direct current (DC) created by solar panels into AC suitable for home use and grid connection. It is vital for optimizing energy use and providing safe, consistent electricity delivery from solar energy systems.
Alternating current: Alternating current is an electric current that changes direction cyclically, generally used in domestic and business power supplies. It permits effective transmission of electricity over extended spans and is characterized by its voltage and current waveforms, usually sinusoidal.
Charge controller: A charge regulator is a device that regulates the voltage and current coming from a solar panel to prevent batteries from overcharging and damage. It guarantees efficient energy transfer and prolongs the lifespan of the battery bank.
Measuring instrument: A measuring instrument is a device used to ascertain the dimension, volume, or degree of something accurately. It includes instruments like rulers, thermometers, and barometers that provide exact readings for various applications.
Solar tracker: A solar tracker is a system that automatically the orientation of solar panels to monitor the sun's movement throughout the day, increasing energy absorption. This technology boosts the efficiency of solar power systems by ensuring best sun exposure.
Solar farms: Photovoltaic installations are large-scale facilities that capture sunlight to create electricity using many solar panels. They supply a renewable and renewable energy power, reducing reliance on non-renewable energy sources and lowering greenhouse gas emissions.
Rooftop solar power: Roof-mounted solar energy involves setting up photovoltaic panels on building rooftops to generate electricity from sunlight. This green energy source helps minimize reliance on non-renewable fuels and lowers greenhouse gas emissions.
Grid-connected photovoltaic system: An grid-connected solar energy setup transforms sunlight into electricity and feeds excess power directly into the utility grid, providing a sustainable energy solution. It enhances energy efficiency and reduces reliance on fossil fuels while enabling users to benefit from potential energy credits.
Greenhouse gas emissions: Greenhouse gas emissions refer to the release of gases such as CO2, methane, and N2O into the atmosphere, primarily from human activities like fossil fuel combustion and tree clearing. These gases trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming and climate change.
Solar power satellite: A solar energy satellite is an orbiting platform equipped with solar arrays that gather solar radiation and generate power. This electricity is then transmitted wirelessly to our planet for utilization as a sustainable energy source.
Home energy storage: Home power storage systems retain excess electricity generated from renewable sources or the grid for subsequent consumption, boosting energy self-sufficiency and effectiveness. These systems typically utilize batteries to offer backup energy, reduce energy costs, and aid grid robustness.
Timeline of solar cells: The chronology of solar panels documents the development and innovations in solar energy technology from the initial finding of the solar effect to modern high-efficiency solar arrays. It features significant innovations, including the development of the initial silicon solar cell in 1954 and persistent developments that have greatly enhanced power transformation and cost-effectiveness.
Edmond Becquerel: Edmond Becquerel was a French scientist renowned for his innovative work in the study of the solar effect and luminescent phenomena. His tests laid the groundwork for understanding how light interacts with certain substances to create electricity.
Willoughby Smith: Willoughby Smith was a UK electrician and scientist known for discovering the photo-conductive property of Se in 1873. His research laid the foundation for the development of the photoconductive cell and progress in initial photography and electronic technologies.
Selenium: Selenium is an open-source framework used for automating web browsers, enabling testers to simulate user interactions and test web application functionalities. It supports various programming languages and web browsers, making it a versatile tool for automated.
William Grylls Adams: William Grylls Adams was a British scientist renowned for his pioneering work in the study of luminescence and optical science, particularly the discovery of the polarization of luminescence reflected from transparent materials. His research significantly contributed to the understanding of electromagnetic wave behavior and the development of optics.
Charles Fritts: Charles Fritts was a an American inventor who developed the initial working selenium solar cell in 1883. His pioneering work set the groundwork for the contemporary photovoltaic industry.
Coal-fired power plant: An coal-powered power plant generates electricity by burning coal to produce vapor that drives turbines connected to generators. This process releases considerable amounts of carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere.
Russell Ohl: Russell Ohl was an United States scientist credited with discovering the solar cell and improving the understanding of semiconductor materials. His work paved the way for modern photovoltaic technology and the development of silicon-based solar panels.
Bell Labs: Bell Laboratories is a famous innovative organization historically associated with AT&T, known for pioneering innovations in telecommunications, computer science, and materials science. It has been the birthplace of numerous groundbreaking inventions, including the semiconductor device and the laser.
Silicon: Silicon is a chemical element with the symbol Si and number 14, well known for its crucial role in the fabrication of electronics and solar panels. It is a solid, fragile crystal solid with a bluish-gray metallic luster, predominantly employed as a semiconductor in the technology sector.
Micro-inverter: A compact inverter is a little component installed on each photovoltaic panel to transform direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC) at the location. This method increases system effectiveness, enables better system tracking, and boosts energy yield in photovoltaic systems.
Solar cell: A solar panel is a device that converts sunlight directly into electricity through the solar energy process. It is commonly used in photovoltaic systems to supply a renewable and renewable energy power.
PV system: An PV (photovoltaic) system converts sunlight immediately into electricity using solar panels composed of semiconductor cells. It is a green energy technology that delivers renewable power for residential, commercial, and utility-scale applications.
Photon: A photon is a elementary particle representing a quantum of light and other electromagnetic radiation, carrying energy and momentum and energy without having rest mass. It has a key role in the interactions between matter and electromagnetic fields, facilitating phenomena including reflection, refraction, and quantum communication.
Photovoltaic effect: The photovoltaic effect is the process by which specific substances convert sunlight straight into electricity through the generation of charge carriers. This phenomenon is the fundamental concept behind solar panel systems, enabling the capturing of solar solar power for power generation.
Wafer (electronics): A wafer in electrical engineering is a fine slice of chip material, usually silicon, used as the substrate for fabricating integrated circuits. It functions as the foundational platform where microchips are built through processes like doping, etching, and lamination.
Crystalline silicon: Crystalline silicon is a extremely pure form of silicon used primarily in the manufacturing of solar panels and electronic components due to its superb semiconductor properties. Its structured, orderly crystal lattice enables effective electrical conductivity and energy conversion.
Thin film solar cell: Thin film solar cells are a type of solar power system characterized by their light, flexible design, and ability to be fabricated over extensive surfaces at a more affordable price. They use strata of semiconductor substances a few micrometers thick to transform sunlight into usable electricity efficiently.
Dead and live loads: Dead loads refer to the static forces exerted by the mass of building components and stationary equipment, while live loads are temporary forces such as people, furniture, and environmental factors. Both are essential considerations in structural design to ensure safety and stability.
Series and parallel circuits: Series circuits link components end-to-end, so the identical current flows through all devices, while parallel circuits link components across the same voltage source, allowing several paths for current. These configurations influence the circuit's total resistance, current allocation, and voltage reductions.
Electric power: Electrification refers to the speed at which electricity flows by an electrical circuit, primarily used to operate devices and appliances. Created through diverse origins such as fossil fuels, nuclear, and renewable energy, and fundamental for contemporary living.
Watt: A measure of power is a measure of energy conversion in the SI system, showing the speed of energy transfer or transformation. It is equivalent to one unit of energy per second.
Voltage: Voltage is the electrical potential difference between two points, which causes the flow of electronic current in a circuit. It is measured in V and represents the power per individual charge ready to shift electrons.
Volt: A voltage is the derived unit of electric potential, voltage difference, and electromotive force in the International System of Units. It measures the electric energy per charge unit between two points in an electrical network.
Electric current: Electrical current is the flow of electrical charge through a conductor, typically measured in amps. It is necessary for energizing electronic equipment and facilitating the operation of electronic systems.
Ampere: Ampere represents the unit of electric current in the SI units, symbolized as A. It quantifies the movement of electrical charge through a circuit over a period of time.
Electrical load: Electrical load is the term for the level of electrical power or current demanded by devices and electrical load in a circuit. It determines the configuration and size of power systems to maintain safe and efficient energy distribution.
Junction box: A junction enclosure is an electrical casing used to safely house wire connections, providing a central point for wiring in electrical systems. It ensures organized and reliable connections, preventing electrical hazards and facilitating maintenance.
MC4 connector: The MC4 is a standardized photovoltaic connector used to connect solar panels in a safe and dependable manner. It features a click-in design with waterproof sealing, ensuring durability and efficient electrical connection in outdoor solar power systems.
USB power: USB power delivers a convenient and uniform method of providing electrical energy to devices through common ports. It is commonly used for recharging and energizing a extensive range of electronic gadgets, from smartphones to peripherals.
Power inverter: A power inverter is a instrument that changes direct current (DC) from sources like accumulators or photovoltaic arrays into AC suitable for domestic gadgets. It allows the use of common electrical appliances in locations where only direct current electricity is present.
Battery pack: An battery pack serves as a collection of several individual batteries created to store and supply electrical energy for various devices. It provides portable power solutions for electronics, electric vehicles, and renewable energy systems.
Solar tracking: Solar panel tracking solutions automatically adjust the position of solar modules to track the sun's path throughout the daytime, optimizing energy absorption. This system boosts the effectiveness of solar power gathering by maintaining best solar array alignment.
Maximum power point tracking: Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is a technique used to maximize the power generation of solar panel setups by continuously adjusting the working point to correspond to the maximum power point of the solar panels. This methodology guarantees the highest efficiency energy extraction, especially under changing weather.
Power optimizer: A power optimizer is a device used in solar energy systems to optimize energy output by individually tailored optimizing the performance of each solar panel. It increases overall system efficiency by minimizing energy loss caused by shading, dirt, or panel mismatch.
Solar performance monitor: A photovoltaic performance monitor is a tool that tracks and evaluates the performance of solar power systems in real-time, offering useful data on energy production and system status. It helps optimize solar energy generation by detecting faults promptly and ensuring highest performance.
Thin-film solar cell: Flexible solar cells are lightweight, multi-purpose photovoltaic devices made by depositing thin layers of semiconductor materials onto substrates. They offer a affordable and multi-functional alternative to traditional silicon-based solar panels, with applications in different portable and building-integrated energy solutions.
Solar cells: Photovoltaic cells convert sun rays directly into electricity through the solar energy conversion process, making them a eco-friendly energy source. They are typically used in solar panels to generate electricity for homes, electronic gadgets, and complete solar power systems.
Polycrystalline silicon: Polycrystalline silicon, also known as polysilicon, is a compound composed of countless minute silicon crystal structures, typically used in solar modules and chip fabrication. Its manufacturing process involves fusing and reforming silicon to form a ultra-pure, polycrystalline structure appropriate for electronic devices.
Monocrystalline silicon: Monocrystalline silicon is a premium form of silicon with a continuous lattice framework, making it very effective for use in photovoltaic modules and electronic devices. Its consistent structure allows for better electron transfer, resulting in higher functionality compared to other silicon types.
Cadmium telluride photovoltaics: CdTe photovoltaics are a kind of thin-film solar technology that offers a affordable and efficient solution for extensive solar energy harvesting. They are known as their great absorption capability and comparatively reduced manufacturing expenses compared to traditional silicon-based solar panels.
Copper indium gallium selenide solar cell: CIGS photovoltaic devices are flexible solar cells that use a composite material of copper, In, gallium, and Se to transform sunlight into electricity effectively. They are noted for their excellent light capturing performance, bendability, and capability for portable, affordable solar energy solutions.
Amorphous silicon: Amorphous silicon is a amorphous atomic configuration, making it more flexible and easier to deposit than structured silicon. It is frequently used in thin-film solar cells and electronic components due to its cost-effectiveness and flexible features.
Third-generation photovoltaic cell: Third-generation photovoltaic panels aim to exceed traditional solar cell efficiencies by utilizing cutting-edge materials and new techniques such as multi-junction stacks, quantum dots, and organic-inorganic hybrids. These technologies focus on maximizing energy conversion, reducing costs, and broadening applicability to various environments.
Multi-junction solar cell: Multi-junction solar cells are cutting-edge photovoltaic devices that utilize multiple p-n junctions arranged in unison to capture a broader range of the solar spectrum, greatly boosting their efficiency. These are mainly applied in space satellites and high-efficiency solar power systems due to their outstanding energy conversion capabilities.
Solar panels on spacecraft: Spacecraft solar panels are essential devices that convert solar radiation into electricity to power onboard instrumentation. Usually lightweight, long-lasting, and crafted to function effectively in the demanding space environment.
Compound semiconductor: Compound semiconductors are substances composed of several elements, typically involving a metal component and a non-metallic element, used in high-speed electronic and optoelectronic devices. They offer enhanced performance in applications such as laser devices, LEDs, and high-speed transistors compared to traditional silicon-based semiconductors.
Gallium arsenide: Gallium arsenide is a compound semiconductor known for its excellent electron mobility and effectiveness in high-frequency and optoelectronic applications. It is frequently used in devices such as microwave circuits, infrared LEDs, and solar cells.
Concentrator photovoltaics: Concentrator photovoltaics employ optics or reflectors to direct sunlight onto very efficient multi-junction solar cells, greatly enhancing energy transformation efficiency. This technology is perfect for large-scale solar power plants in areas with sunny sunlight, delivering a cost-effective solution for large-scale energy needs.
Thin-film silicon: Flexible silicon is a type of photovoltaic material used in solar cells, characterized by its compact and bendable form factor. It offers a economical alternative to traditional silicon wafers, with applications in solar building materials and mobile energy solutions.
CIGS solar cell: CIGS thin-film solar cell utilize a ultra-thin layer of CIGS compound as the photovoltaic material, known for high efficiency and bendability. They offer a easy-to-handle, budget-friendly alternative to conventional silicon PV modules with reliable operation in various environmental conditions.
Thin-film: Thin-film denotes a slender layer of material, often measured in nanometers or micrometers, used in multiple technological fields. These layers are vital in electronics, light manipulation, and films for their unique physical and chemical properties.
Rooftop solar PV: Roof-mounted solar PV systems harness the sun's rays to generate electricity directly on rooftops of buildings, providing a sustainable and economical energy solution. They help reduce reliance on fossil fuels, lower electricity bills, and contribute to eco-preservation.
Thin film: A coating is a sheet of compound covering tiny nanometric scales to multiple micrometers in depth, often coated on surfaces for functional applications. These films are used in multiple sectors, including electronics industry, light manipulation, and medicine, to alter surface properties or create specific device functionalities.
Nanometers: Nano units are units of measurement equivalent to one-billionth of a meter, commonly used to illustrate extremely small distances at the atomic and molecular scale. They are crucial in disciplines including nanotechnology, physics, and chemistry for measuring structures and particles at the nano dimension.
Micrometers: Calipers are accurate devices used to exactly measure small distances or depths, generally in manufacturing and manufacturing. They feature a adjusted screw mechanism that allows for precise readings, often down to thousandths of an inch or hundredths of a millimeter.
Silicon wafer: A silicon slice is a fine, disk-shaped piece of silicon crystal used as the base for fabricating semiconductor devices. It serves as the core material in the manufacture of semiconductor chips and electronic components.
Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells: Copper indium gallium selenide-based solar panels are compact solar units known for their high efficiency and bendability, perfect for multiple fields. They utilize a layered layered semiconductor setup that transforms sunlight straight into electricity with remarkable performance in low-light environments.
Multi-crystalline silicon: Multi-crystalline silicon is a form of silicon used in solar panels, characterized by its many crystal grains that give it a grainy appearance. It is noted for being economical and having a relatively high efficiency in turning sunlight into energy.
Solar PV systems: Photovoltaic systems convert sunlight directly into electricity using solar panels, providing a renewable energy source for household, business, and large-scale applications. They provide a clean, renewable, and cost-effective way to decrease reliance on non-renewable energy sources and lower greenhouse gas emissions.
Perovskite solar cell: Perovskite solar cells are a type of photovoltaic technology that uses perovskite-structured compound as the light-harvesting layer, known for their high efficiency and low-cost manufacturing. These cell have rapidly advanced in performance, making them a promising alternative to traditional silicon-based solar panels.
Dye-sensitized solar cell: A dye-activated solar cell (DSSC) is a solar energy device that converts sunlight into electrical energy using a light-reactive dye to absorb light and create electron flow. It offers a affordable and versatile alternative to traditional silicon-based solar cells, with opportunity for see-through and lightweight applications.
Quantum dot solar cell: Quantum dot solar cell cells utilize nanos semiconductor particles to enhance light capture and conversion efficiency through quantum size effects. This approach offers the possibility for lower-cost, flexible, and highly efficient solar energy harvesting solutions.
Organic solar cell: Organic solar cells are photovoltaic units that use organic materials, to convert sunlight into electric power. They are lightweight, pliable, and offer the potential for cost-effective, broad solar energy.
CZTS: CZTS Cu) Zinc Tin Sulfide is a advantageous photovoltaic compound used in laminate solar panels due to its earth-abundant and harmless elements. Its superior optical-electronic properties make it an appealing option for green photovoltaic applications.
Building integrated photovoltaics: Building integrated photovoltaics solar-integrated building systems seamlessly incorporate solar power systems into the design of construction components, such as rooftops, facades, and windows. This cutting-edge approach enhances power savings while maintaining aesthetic appeal and structural performance.
Transparency and translucency: Transparency permits light to pass through a material with little distortion, making objects behind clearly visible. Translucency permits light to spread through, obscuring detailed visibility but yet still permitting shapes and light to transmit.
Window tinting: Window tinting involves the process of applying a transparent film to the inside or outside of automobiles or edifices windows to reduce glare, heat, and UV radiation. It boosts privacy, improves energy efficiency, and adds a stylish aesthetic to any window.
List of photovoltaic power stations: A list of photovoltaic power stations details various extensive solar energy plants around the world, highlighting their power and sites. These plants serve a vital role in renewable energy production and global efforts to cut carbon releases.
Photovoltaic power stations: Solar power facilities are large-scale installations that transform sunlight straight into electricity using solar modules. They are crucial in renewable energy generation, cutting dependence on coal and oil, and lowering greenhouse gas emissions.
Environmental issues: Environmental issues encompass a wide range of challenges such as waste, climate change, and forest loss that threaten the health of our planet. Addressing these problems requires joint initiatives to promote eco-friendly methods and protect wild habitats.
Renewable energy: Renewable energy comes from environmentally friendly sources that are constantly replenished, such as sunlight, wind, and hydropower. It offers a eco-friendly alternative to traditional fuels, decreasing ecological footprint and enhancing sustainable energy security.
Non-renewable energy: Non-renewable energy sources, such as bituminous coal, crude oil, and natural gas, are non-replenishable supplies formed over geological eras and are exhausted when used. They are the chief power sources for electrical energy and mobility but pose environmental and renewability challenges.
Electricity generation: Power production involves converting various energy sources such as coal, oil, and natural gas, atomic energy, and green energy into electrical energy. This process typically occurs in electricity plants where rotating machinery and generators work together to produce electricity for power distribution.
Heavy metals: Heavy metals are thick, harmful elements such as Pb, mercury, Cd, and arsenide that pose significant health and environmental risks due to their persistence and bioaccumulation. They are commonly found in industrial emissions, contaminated water, and certain consumer products, requiring careful management to prevent adverse effects.
Solar-cell efficiency: Solar panel effectiveness measures how well a photovoltaic device generates sunlight into usable electrical energy. Boosting this efficiency is key for optimizing renewable energy generation and decreasing reliance on coal and oil.
Photoelectric effect: The photoelectric effect occurs when light shining on a metal ejects electrons from that surface, demonstrating the particle-like behavior of light. This phenomenon provided critical proof for the development of quantum theory by showing that photon energy is quantized.
Accelerated life testing: Enhanced life testing involves placing products to increased stresses to quickly evaluate their durability and predict their lifespan under normal conditions. This method helps identify potential failures and enhance product reliability efficiently.
Growth of photovoltaics: The expansion of photovoltaics has sped up rapidly over the past ten-year period, driven by technological progress and decreasing costs. This development is changing the global energy landscape by raising the portion of clean solar power in electricity generation.
Utility-scale solar: Utility-scale solar refers to large solar power installations intended to generate electricity on a industrial scale, supplying power directly to the grid. These projects typically cover large areas and utilize PV modules or solar thermal systems to produce renewable energy effectively.
Lens (optics): A optical element is a clear component that bends light to converge or spread out rays, creating images. It is commonly used in devices like cameras, glasses, and microscopes to manipulate light for enhanced vision and imaging.
Angle of incidence (optics): The incidence angle is the angle between an incoming light ray and the perpendicular line perpendicular to the surface at the contact point. It determines how light interacts with the surface, influencing reflection and refraction behaviors.
Anti-reflective coating: Anti-glare coating is a thin layer applied to lens surfaces to reduce glare and enhance light passage. It enhances the crispness and luminosity of optical devices by minimizing unwanted reflections.
Destructive interference: Destructive interference occurs when two waves meet in a manner that that their wave heights cancel each other out, resulting in a reduction or total eradication of the resultant waveform. This phenomenon usually happens when the waveforms are out of phase by pi radians.
Alternating Current: Alternating current refers to a type of electrical flow that periodically reverses, mainly utilized in power supply systems. Its voltage varies in a sinusoidal pattern as time progresses, permitting efficient transmission over large spans.
Microinverter: A microinverter is a compact entity used to transform DC from a single solar module into AC suitable for home applications. It improves system efficiency by maximizing power output at the panel level and eases setup and service.
AC power: AC electrical energy, or alternating current power, is electrical power delivered through a setup where the voltage level and electric flow cyclically reverse orientation, enabling cost-effective transmission over extended ranges. It is generally used in homes and commercial sectors to operate different appliances and machinery.
DC connector: A DC connector is a kind of electrical connector used to provide direct current (DC) power from a power supply to an electronic equipment. It typically consists of a cylindrical plug and receptacle that provide a secure and dependable connection for various electronic applications.
Underwriters Laboratories: UL is a global protection validation organization that evaluates and approves products to guarantee they meet specific protection norms. It helps consumers and companies recognize trustworthy and secure products through strict evaluation and testing processes.
Series circuits: Series-connected circuits are electronic circuits in which components are connected end-to-end, forming a one path for current flow. In this configuration, the same electric current passes through all components, and the entire voltage is divided among them.
Parallel circuits: Parallel electrical circuits are electrical circuits where components are connected across the same voltage source, offering multiple paths for current flow. This configuration allows devices to operate separately, with the total current divided among the branches.
Diode: A diode acts as a electronic device that permits current to move in one way only, acting as a one-way valve for electrical current. It is used for rectification, signal demodulation, and voltage regulation in electrical networks.
Automobile auxiliary power outlet: An car auxiliary power outlet is a port, typically 12 volt, created to supply electrical power for multiple devices and attachments inside of a car. It allows users to recharge electronic electronics or run small devices when on the move.
USB: USB (Universal Serial Bus) is a protocol for linking peripherals to computers, allowing data transmission and electric power. It accommodates a variety of hardware such as input devices, mice, external storage devices, and smartphones, with different generations delivering faster speeds and improved performance.
Solar cell efficiency: Solar cell efficiency relates to the ratio of sunlight energy that a photovoltaic cell turns into electrical energy. Boosting this efficiency is essential to optimizing energy output and making solar power affordable and sustainable.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory: The National Renewable Energy Laboratory is a U.S. DOE national laboratory dedicated to research and development in green energy and energy conservation technologies. It focuses on innovations in solar power, wind, biomass energy, and additional renewable sources to enable a clean energy future.
Electromagnetic spectrum: The EM spectrum encompasses the entire range of electromagnetic waves, spanning from radio waves to high-energy photons, each with diverse lengths and power. This spectrum is fundamental to numerous technological applications and natural events, enabling data exchange, diagnostic imaging, and understanding of the outer space.
Ultraviolet: UV light is a kind of electromagnetic radiation with a wave length shorter than visible light but longer than X-rays, primarily emitted by the solar radiation. It has a key role in such as vitamin D synthesis but can also result in skin harm and skin aging caused by light.
Infrared: Infrared radiation is a type of electromagnetic wave with extended wavelengths than visible light, primarily emitted as heat by objects. It is widely used in remote controls, thermal imaging, and various sensing technologies.
Monochromatic: Single-hued refers to a color palette based on variations of a sole hue, using different shades, tints, and tones to create harmony and unity. This layout approach emphasizes minimalism and grace by maintaining uniform color elements throughout a composition.
Irradiance: Irradiance refers to the intensity of electromagnetic radiation per unit area incident on a surface, typically measured in watts per square meter. It is a key parameter in fields such as solar energy, climate science, and photobiology, indicating the strength of sunlight hitting a specific surface.
W/m2: watts per square meter is a measurement unit used to quantify the intensity of radiation or energy flow received or emitted over a specific area, often in fields like meteorology, astronomy, and engineering. It helps in grasping the spread and conveyance of energy across regions, such as solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface.
Spectrum: Spectrum refers to the extent of various hues or wavebands of electromagnetic radiation, visible or alternatively. It is commonly used to depict the distribution of light or signal bandwidths in multiple scientific and technological areas.
Airmass: An airmass is a big mass of atmosphere with relatively even temperature and moisture characteristics, deriving from from particular origin areas. These air masses affect climate trends and atmospheric states as they move across diverse zones.
Solar irradiance: Sun's energy output is the measure of the power per square kilometer received from the solar source in the form of light. It fluctuates with solar cycles and Earth's weather systems, impacting climate and weather patterns.
Soiling (solar energy): Soiling in solar power refers to the buildup of dust, and impurities on the surface of photovoltaic modules, which reduces their efficiency. Routine maintenance and maintenance are important to reduce energy waste and guarantee best efficiency.
Open-circuit voltage: Open-circuit voltage is the maximum voltage available from a power source when there is no current, taken across its terminals. It shows the potential difference of a device when it has been disconnected from any load.
Short-circuit current: Short-circuit current is the maximum electrical current that travels through a circuit when a reduced resistance connection, or short circuit, takes place, going around the normal load. It poses a significant safety hazard and can result in damage to electrical components if not properly controlled.
Watt-peak: Watt-peak (Wp) is a assessment of the highest power generation of a solar panel under optimal sunlight conditions. It shows the panel's peak capacity to generate electricity in standard testing setups .
Voltmeter: A voltmeter is an electrical instrument used to determine the voltage between two points in a electrical system. It is commonly used in various electrical and electronic applications to ensure proper voltage levels
Potential-induced degradation: Potential-induced degradation (PID) is a occurrence in PV modules where high voltage stress causes a substantial reduction in energy production and efficiency. It occurs due to leakage current and ion migration within the solar cell components, leading to performance deterioration over time.
Boron: Boron is considered a metalloid element necessary for plant development and used in various industrial applications, such as glassmaking and chip manufacturing. It has unique chemical traits that make it beneficial in producing robust, heat-resistant materials.
Photovoltaic mounting system: A solar panel mounting system securely supports solar panels, ensuring ideal tilt and orientation for maximum sunlight exposure. It is designed to withstand weather conditions while providing a solid and long-lasting foundation for solar energy installations.
Solar power plant: A solar-powered power plant collects sunlight using large collections of photovoltaic panels to generate renewable electricity. It offers an green energy source, diminishing reliance on fossil fuels and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Agrivoltaics: Agrivoltaics is the consolidated practice of using land for both solar energy output and farming, making the most of space and resources. This method enhances crop production while at the same time producing renewable energy, encouraging sustainable land use.
Bifacial solar cells: Bifacial photovoltaic cells are photovoltaic devices capable of capturing sunlight on both sides, improving overall energy production. They are usually installed in a way that allows for increased efficiency by leveraging albedo mirroring and bounced sunlight from the environment.
Solar canopy: A sun-powered canopy is a installation that provides shade while producing electricity through embedded solar panels. It is frequently installed in parking lots, walkways, or open spaces to merge environmental benefits with useful design.
Solar array: A solar panel setup is a group of several solar panels arranged to generate electricity from sunlight. It is commonly used in green energy setups to deliver renewable, sustainable power for different applications.
Patio cover: A patio shield is a structure that provides shade and protection from the elements for al fresco areas. It improves the functionality and look of a courtyard, making it a comfortable area for rest and socializing.
Zenith angle: The zenith angle is the angle between the perpendicular line directly overhead and the line of sight to a astronomical body. It is applied in astronomy and meteorology to represent the position of bodies in the heavens relative to an onlooker.
Azimuth angle: The azimuth angle is a horizontal angle measured clockwise from a reference direction, usually true north, to the line connecting an surveyor to a destination. It is commonly used in navigation, mapping, and astrophysics to specify the bearing of an target relative to the observer.
Occupational hazards of solar panel installation: Setting up solar panels exposes workers to risks such as falls from heights and electric shocks, requiring proper safety measures. Additionally, exposure to severe weather and potential musculoskeletal injuries pose significant occupational hazards of solar panel installation.
Cadmium telluride: Cadmium telluride is a electronic substance commonly employed in thin film solar panels due to its high efficiency and cost-effectiveness. It demonstrates excellent optical properties, making it a preferred choice for solar applications.
List of photovoltaics companies: A catalog of photovoltaics companies highlights the major manufacturers and suppliers expert in solar panel technology and renewable energy solutions globally. These companies are key in promoting solar energy adoption and advancement across various markets.
Gigawatt: A gigawatt is a unit of electricity equal to one billion W, used to quantify massive power generation generation and utilization. It is commonly associated with power plants, electricity networks, and large-scale energy initiatives worldwide.
First Solar: The company First Solar is a worldwide leader in solar energy solutions, specializing in producing thin film solar cells that offer high efficiency and economical power generation. The organization is focused on green renewable energy advancement and reducing the global dependence on fossil fuels through innovative solar technology.
GCL System Integration Technology: GCL System Integration Technology specializes in smoothly linking various components of industrial and automated systems to improve productivity and reliability. It concentrates on developing innovative solutions that promote smooth communication and cooperation among diverse technological platforms.
Shunfeng Photovoltaic: Shunfeng Photovoltaic is an leading Chinese-based firm expert in the manufacturing and development of solar photovoltaic items and systems. It is known for state-of-the-art tech and sustainable energy initiatives within renewables industry.
GigaWatt: GigaWatt is a unit of power equal to 1,000,000,000 watts, often employed to represent the capacity of massively scaled electricity production or usage. It emphasizes the immense power magnitude involved in contemporary power infrastructure and technology.
Experience curve effects: Learning curve effects refer to the concept where the unit cost drops as total output rises, due to learning and optimization gained over time. This effect highlights the value of accumulated experience in cutting expenses and enhancing efficiency in manufacturing and other procedures.
Photovoltaics: Solar energy turn sunlight straight into electricity using semiconductor materials, primarily silicon. This system is a environmentally friendly, sustainable energy source that assists lessen reliance on fossil fuels and reduces greenhouse gas emissions.
Grid parity: Grid parity occurs when the price of generating solar or wind energy becomes the same as or lower than the price of buying power from the electric grid. Achieving Grid parity means that sustainable energy technologies are financially viable with fossil fuel-based fossil fuels.
Mains electricity: Mains electricity serves as the main electrical power supplied to residences and businesses through a system of power lines, providing a reliable source of energy for numerous appliances. It generally operates at a voltage of around 120V or 230V, according to the country, and is supplied through alternating current.
Balance of system: Balance of system (BOS) pertains to all elements of a solar power system excluding the photovoltaic panels, comprising inverters, racking, wiring, and additional electrical hardware. It is essential for securing the efficient and reliable operation of a solar energy installation.
Solar energy: Solar energy is captured from the sun's rays using solar cells to generate electricity or through thermal solar systems to provide warmth. It represents a green, eco-friendly, and environmentally friendly source of power that reduces reliance on fossil fuels.
Applications of photovoltaics: Photovoltaics are widely utilized in residential, business, and manufacturing environments to generate renewable, sustainable electricity from sunlight. They also power remote and off-grid locations, delivering green energy solutions where traditional power grids are not accessible.
List of solar-powered products: A list of solar energy products features a range of tools that capture sunlight to generate energy, supporting environmentally friendly and sustainable living. These solutions include covering solar chargers and lights to appliances and outdoor equipment, providing flexible alternatives for power needs.
Photovoltaic power station: An solar power plant is a installation that generates sunlight immediately into electricity using photovoltaic panels. It is a green energy source that aids in decreasing reliance on fossil fuels and limits greenhouse gas emissions.
Solar hybrid power systems: Solar hybrid power systems merge solar panels with alternative energy sources, such as wind or diesel generators, to deliver a reliable and efficient power supply. They optimize energy use by balancing renewable resources and backup options, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and lowering overall emissions.
Concentrated photovoltaics: CPV employ optical lenses plus reflectors to focus sunlight onto advanced photovoltaic cells, significantly increasing energy capture using a smaller area. This approach is highly suitable where intense, direct sunlight and offers a viable solution to cut solar power costs.

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We've helped hundreds of thousands make the most of a residential solar installation. Residential solar allows you to reduce your energy bill and carbon footprint to help you build towards a brighter tomorrow.

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Rethink business energy consumption with a full-scale solar array. Help your business move to carbon neutrality while powering your properties and saving money. We work with businesses of all sizes.

Roofing

Your roof is the backbone of your home, and requires an experienced team to help it stand up to the elements for years to come. A strong roof is important when making the switch to solar.

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Ensure your system is protected from damage and maintains efficient energy generation over time with Lumina Energy Services. From solar maintenance to battery installation, our team is here for your system.

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Lumina has proudly earned many accolades over the years, solidifying our position as the premier solar company in the Mid-Atlantic region. From top customer satisfaction ratings to industry awards, Lumina stands as a beacon of quality and reliability in the solar industry.

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Throughout the Mid-Atlantic, excellent incentive options from federal, state, and local governments help make going solar even more affordable. From rebates for installations and property tax breaks to selling back excess energy produced, there are great incentive options available to you regardless of where you live.

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At Lumina Solar, we take pride in building long-lasting relationships with our customers. Each project begins with a foundation of transparent communication and a desire to create a solution that is tailored to you. With over 900 five-star reviews across all platforms, we are honored to be the leading solar installers in the Mid-Atlantic.

Virginia Smith

23 May 2025

I recently went through the Civic Works program to install solar panels, and the Lumina Solar was the company they work with to install. Everything about the process was so easy and everyone was so friendly and knowledgeable. They walk you through every step of the process, including setting up certain appointments for you. My system is now up and running and I'm so happy I had them installed by Lumina.

Michael Doggett

19 May 2025

My Solar Consultant, Ryan Cook was awesome. He guided us through the whole process and kept us informed at every step. We purchased a 50 panel system for our house and I am very happy with the results. Lumina has a great team of people taking care of all the various steps between the county permits, the electric company, the energy credits, the county tax credit. For this complex of a purchase, it was very smooth. I would without any hesitation recommend Ryan and Lumina. The installation team under Brandon was also on point the whole time treating the job like they were working on their own home. So far the system is working well and the monitoring software is really helpful.

Andy Nees

12 May 2025

I was overall very pleased with the entire process. Lumina Solar made the process quite easy. The concierge handled scheduling, financing, tax forms, and communicated with the utility companies. The work crews were prompt, courteous, and did great work.

There are two reasons I did not give 5 stars: 1--The contractors left behind some contractor waste after the installation that I had to store until they picked it up. It took a week and they apologized. 2--The site survey before work began did not identify where to put the utility box, where to route conduits, and where to drive grounding rods. This caused minor delays.

I would recommend them and am very happy with my solar panels!

Alan Pearson

10 May 2025

Last week we reached the one-year mark since Lumina Solar installed solar panels on our house and they were activated. After one year, Lumina's estimate was within 3% of the actual energy production, and the small difference was on the positive side. That is, Lumina slightly underestimated how much energy our installation would produce. Only one other company we looked at got close, and that company would have overestimated energy production by about 6%. (The other two companies would have overestimated by 19% and a whopping 49%). Kudos to Lumina for being so accurate! They took a no-nonsense approach and worked closely with us as we shopped for solar installation companies and throughout the installation process, thoughtfully answering every question we posed. We are very happy with the results and very happy that we chose Lumina Solar to be our solar energy provider.

Tom G

9 May 2025

The process of purchasing and having solar panels installed by Lumina was a terrific experience, and I am very happy I chose Lumina Solar for the project. Ali did a great job managing the project from beginning to end, and Tyler led a professional team that installed our panels exactly as expected. Both Ali and Tyler took the time to explain the system to me and to let me know what to expect with the remaining steps in the process. The process was very smooth, all schedules were met, and we now have a system that is performing extremely well. I highly recommend Lumina Solar to anyone seeking to add solar energy to their home.

Arnaldo Lopez

30 April 2025

They did an excellent job throughout the process! Additionally, they handled almost everything and were very informative every step of the way. If you're curious about solar I'd suggest giving them a call. The panels look great and have been working well so far.

Steve Zubrowski

30 April 2025

I had a great experience with Lumina. Kurt Bradshaw was incredibly helpful with making sure we got the right solar setup to meet our needs. He communicated clearly throughout the whole purchasing and setup process, answering any questions my wife or I had quickly and transparently. Everyone on the team kept things moving along at each step from permits to applications, ensuring a timely and smooth installation. The system has been performing as expected since the install, and I'm happy to know I've got a solid warranty with a reputable company behind it.

Peter Cole

25 April 2025

Going solar is a huge investment, and I wanted to make sure I partnered with the right company - one that not only offered quality products but also truly cared about the experience. After speaking with several solar companies, I chose Lumina Solar because of my sales consultant, Gabriel Shabtai. From the very first conversation, Gabriel made me feel like more than just a customer - he made me feel like a partner. That personal connection is ultimately why I trusted Lumina with my project, and I'm very glad I did.

Gabriel took the time to explain every part of the process, answered all my questions without any pressure, and made sure I was completely comfortable with each decision. He really listened to what I wanted, not just what would be easiest to sell. One of my specific requests was to have my EV charger routed through the basement for a cleaner, more seamless setup - and he and the team made it happen without hesitation, even though it added extra work for them. That willingness to do things the right way, instead of the easy way, really stood out to me.

During the installation, like any major project, there were a few minor challenges - but Lumina's professionalism showed every step of the way. They communicated clearly, took ownership when adjustments were needed, and never once left me wondering what was happening. Every person who worked on my project treated my home with care and respect.

Now that everything is complete, I couldn't be happier with the final results. The solar panels look clean and sharp, the wiring and system setup were done with obvious attention to detail, and the system has been producing great numbers from day one. Everything works exactly the way it should, and it feels good knowing it was done right.

Solar is a long-term investment - and with Lumina Solar and Gabriel Shabtai, I know I made the right one. They didn't just install a system; they built trust, delivered quality, and backed up every promise they made. In today's world, that's rare, and it deserves to be recognized.

If you're considering solar, I highly recommend reaching out to Lumina Solar and asking for Gabriel Shabtai. You won't just get a system - you'll get a partner who genuinely cares about doing things the right way.

Thank you again to Gabriel and the entire Lumina team for making this such a great experience!

Brooks Creel

23 April 2025

I highly recommend Alison Sanders at Lumina Solar if you are looking to install solar in your home. Alison is very responsive and knowledgeable and made the process run smoothly. I have been a customer of Lumina Solar for two years now and am happy with my choice.

Bill Saxton

21 April 2025

I can't say enough good things about my experience with Lumina Solar. I was honestly a bit hesitant at first - going solar felt like a big step, and I wasn't sure what to expect. But those worries quickly disappeared after I started working with the Lumina team.

A huge shoutout to Courtney Sollenberger, who was absolutely fantastic in every way. She walked me through everything - from costs and financing options to scheduling and answering every question I had (and there were a lot!). She was responsive, patient, and truly made the process feel easy and stress-free.

The installation team was equally impressive. They were clean, professional, and incredibly efficient - the entire install only took two days, and they left everything spotless. I couldn't be happier with how everything turned out.

If you're on the fence about going solar, I highly recommend Lumina Solar. They made the whole process seamless and positive. Thanks again to Courtney and the whole team!

We Make Home and Business Solar Simple.

We've built our company around streamlining the solar process. With a team of industry veterans at your disposal, your journey to clean, renewable energy will be intuitive, efficient, and effective. We're committed to a comprehensive solar experience, from your first consultation to any required maintenance for years to come.

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Save money and help mitigate the impact of climate change. Customers who switch to solar save between 15–30% on their energy bill.

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We have a highly qualified team that will help you through every step. Let us handle all applications and paperwork, you can handle your new energy savings.

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We are a full service installer. Our technical crews have the experience and expertise to ensure you have the best solar installation possible.

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We take a look at the comprehensive picture of solar needs, from a new roof to support your system to maintenance and upgrade services that increase the longevity of your solar array.

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Do you perform installations on commercial facilities, and how does the request for quotation estimation break down., e.g. by square footage, or by kilowatt hour capacity, man hours of labor etc. Thank you

Hello! We do offer commercial solar installation. I can connect you with a representative from our commercial department to answer your questions in more detail. Please provide your contact information and the address you are looking to get …

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"Lumina has been great to work with and offer stellar service and solar products."

"We could not be happier with the equipment and the quality of the installation."

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7 months ago

This past spring I started to explore options for solar power. I spent time researching different companies and settled on Lumina Solar PA. I reached out and within a day had a return call and we discussed my solar needs. Jack Wood then …

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7 months ago

Everyone at Lumina Solar was great to work with. Courtney was exceptional in handling our project from start to finish. The installation team was professional, thorough and detailed. We will reccomend this company to anyone thinking of going solar.

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Solar panel

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Solar panels)

For solar thermal panels, see solar thermal collector and solar thermal energy.

Greencap Energy solar array mounted on brewery in Worthing, England

Solar array mounted on a rooftop

A solar panel is a device that converts sunlight into electricity by using photovoltaic (PV) cells. PV cells are made of materials that produce excited electrons when exposed to light. These electrons flow through a circuit and produce direct current (DC) electricity, which can be used to power various devices or be stored in batteries. Solar panels are also known as solar cell panels, solar electric panels, or PV modules.[1]

Solar panels are usually arranged in groups called arrays or systems. A photovoltaic system consists of one or more solar panels, an inverter that converts DC electricity to alternating current (AC) electricity, and sometimes other components such as controllers, meters, and trackers. Most panels are in solar farms or rooftop solar panels which supply the electricity grid.

Some advantages of solar panels are that they use a renewable and clean source of energy, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and lower electricity bills. Some disadvantages are that they depend on the availability and intensity of sunlight, require cleaning, and have high initial costs. Solar panels are widely used for residential, commercial, and industrial purposes, as well as in space, often together with batteries.

History

In 1839, the ability of some materials to create an electrical charge from light exposure was first observed by the French physicist Edmond Becquerel.[2] Though these initial solar panels were too inefficient for even simple electric devices, they were used as an instrument to measure light.[3]

The observation by Becquerel was not replicated again until 1873, when the English electrical engineer Willoughby Smith discovered that the charge could be caused by light hitting selenium. After this discovery, William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day published "The action of light on selenium" in 1876, describing the experiment they used to replicate Smith's results.[2][4]

In 1881, the American inventor Charles Fritts created the first commercial solar panel, which was reported by Fritts as "continuous, constant and of considerable force not only by exposure to sunlight but also to dim, diffused daylight".[5][6][clarification needed] However, these solar panels were very inefficient, especially compared to coal-fired power plants.

In 1939, Russell Ohl created the solar cell design that is used in many modern solar panels. He patented his design in 1941.[7] In 1954, this design was first used by Bell Labs to create the first commercially viable silicon solar cell.[2]

Solar panel installers saw significant growth between 2008 and 2013.[8] Due to that growth many installers had projects that were not "ideal" solar roof tops to work with and had to find solutions to shaded roofs and orientation difficulties.[9] This challenge was initially addressed by the re-popularization of micro-inverters and later the invention of power optimizers.

Solar panel manufacturers partnered with micro-inverter companies to create AC modules and power optimizer companies partnered with module manufacturers to create smart modules.[10] In 2013 many solar panel manufacturers announced and began shipping their smart module solutions.[11]

Theory and construction

Cell connection techniques

Solar modular cells need to be connected together to form the module, with front electrodes blocking the solar cell front optical surface area slightly. To maximize frontal surface area available for sunlight and improve solar cell efficiency, manufacturers use varying rear electrode solar cell connection techniques:

Passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) uses aluminum rear contact face and adds a polymer film to capture light[14]
Tunnel oxide passivated contact (TOPCon) uses increasingly smaller silver rear bus bars and adds an oxidation layer to the PERC film to capture more light[15][16][17]
Interdigitated back contact (IBC)[18]

Arrays of PV modules

A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most installations contain multiple modules adding their voltages or currents. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of photovoltaic modules, an inverter, a battery pack for energy storage, a charge controller, interconnection wiring, circuit breakers, fuses, disconnect switches, voltage meters, and optionally a solar tracking mechanism. Equipment is carefully selected to optimize energy output and storage, reduce power transmission losses, and convert from direct current to alternating current.

Smart solar modules

Smart module

Smart modules are different from traditional solar panels because the power electronics embedded in the module offers enhanced functionality such as panel-level maximum power point tracking, monitoring, and enhanced safety.[citation needed] Power electronics attached to the frame of a solar module, or connected to the photovoltaic circuit through a connector, are not properly considered smart modules.[19]

Several companies have begun incorporating into each PV module various embedded power electronics such as:

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) power optimizers, a DC-to-DC converter technology developed to maximize the power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems by compensating for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling on a section of a module causes the electrical output of one or more strings of cells in the module to fall to near zero, but not having the output of the entire module fall to zero.[20]
Solar performance monitors for data and fault detection

Technology

Main articles: Crystalline silicon and Thin-film solar cell

Market-share of PV technologies since 1980

Most solar modules are currently produced from crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells made of polycrystalline or monocrystalline silicon. In 2021, crystalline silicon accounted for 95% of worldwide PV production,[21][22] while the rest of the overall market is made up of thin-film technologies using cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) and amorphous silicon (a-Si).[23]

Emerging, third-generation solar technologies use advanced thin-film cells. They produce a relatively high-efficiency conversion for a lower cost compared with other solar technologies. Also, high-cost, high-efficiency, and close-packed rectangular multi-junction (MJ) cells are usually used in solar panels on spacecraft, as they offer the highest ratio of generated power per kilogram lifted into space. MJ-cells are compound semiconductors and made of gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor materials. Another emerging PV technology using MJ-cells is concentrator photovoltaics (CPV).

Thin film

This section is an excerpt from Thin-film solar cell.[edit]

Thin-film solar cells, a second generation of photovoltaic (PV) solar cells:

Top: thin-film silicon laminates being installed onto a roof.
Middle: CIGS solar cell on a flexible plastic backing and rigid CdTe panels mounted on a supporting structure
Bottom: thin-film laminates on rooftops

Thin-film solar cells are a type of solar cell made by depositing one or more thin layers (thin films or TFs) of photovoltaic material onto a substrate, such as glass, plastic or metal. Thin-film solar cells are typically a few nanometers (nm) to a few microns (μm) thick–much thinner than the wafers used in conventional crystalline silicon (c-Si) based solar cells, which can be up to 200 μm thick. Thin-film solar cells are commercially used in several technologies, including cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), and amorphous thin-film silicon (a-Si, TF-Si).

Solar cells are often classified into so-called generations based on the active (sunlight-absorbing) layers used to produce them, with the most well-established or first-generation solar cells being made of single- or multi-crystalline silicon. This is the dominant technology currently used in most solar PV systems. Most thin-film solar cells are classified as second generation, made using thin layers of well-studied materials like amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), or gallium arsenide (GaAs). Solar cells made with newer, less established materials are classified as third-generation or emerging solar cells. This includes some innovative thin-film technologies, such as perovskite, dye-sensitized, quantum dot, organic, and CZTS thin-film solar cells.

Thin-film cells have several advantages over first-generation silicon solar cells, including being lighter and more flexible due to their thin construction. This makes them suitable for use in building-integrated photovoltaics and as semi-transparent, photovoltaic glazing material that can be laminated onto windows. Other commercial applications use rigid thin film solar panels (interleaved between two panes of glass) in some of the world's largest photovoltaic power stations. Additionally, the materials used in thin-film solar cells are typically produced using simple and scalable methods more cost-effective than first-generation cells, leading to lower environmental impacts like greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in many cases. Thin-film cells also typically outperform renewable and non-renewable sources for electricity generation in terms of human toxicity and heavy-metal emissions.

Despite initial challenges with efficient light conversion, especially among third-generation PV materials, as of 2023 some thin-film solar cells have reached efficiencies of up to 29.1% for single-junction thin-film GaAs cells, exceeding the maximum of 26.1% efficiency for standard single-junction first-generation solar cells. Multi-junction concentrator cells incorporating thin-film technologies have reached efficiencies of up to 47.6% as of 2023.[24]

Still, many thin-film technologies have been found to have shorter operational lifetimes and larger degradation rates than first-generation cells in accelerated life testing, which has contributed to their somewhat limited deployment. Globally, the PV marketshare of thin-film technologies remains around 5% as of 2023.[25] However, thin-film technology has become considerably more popular in the United States, where CdTe cells alone accounted for nearly 30% of new utility-scale deployment in 2022.[26]

Concentrator

Some special solar PV modules include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or mirrors onto smaller cells. This enables the cost-effective use of highly efficient, but expensive cells (such as gallium arsenide) with the trade-off of using a higher solar exposure area.[citation needed] Concentrating the sunlight can also raise the efficiency to around 45%.[27]

Light capture

The amount of light absorbed by a solar cell depends on the angle of incidence of whatever direct sunlight hits it. This is partly because the amount falling on the panel is proportional to the cosine of the angle of incidence, and partly because at high angle of incidence more light is reflected. To maximize total energy output, modules are often oriented to face south (in the Northern Hemisphere) or north (in the Southern Hemisphere) and tilted to allow for the latitude. Solar tracking can be used to keep the angle of incidence small.

Solar panels are often coated with an anti-reflective coating, which is one or more thin layers of substances with refractive indices intermediate between that of silicon and that of air. This causes destructive interference in the reflected light, diminishing the amount. Photovoltaic manufacturers have been working to decrease reflectance with improved anti-reflective coatings or with textured glass.[28][29]

Power curve

A typical voltage/current curve for individual unshadowed solar panels. Maximum power point tracking ensures that as much power as possible is collected.

Main article: Solar inverter

In general with individual solar panels, if not enough current is taken, then power isn't maximised. If too much current is taken then the voltage collapses. The optimum current draw is roughly proportional to the amount of sunlight striking the panel. Solar panel capacity is specified by the MPP (maximum power point) value of solar panels in full sunlight.

Inverters

Solar inverters convert the DC power provided by panels to AC power.

Power/Voltage-curve of a partially shaded PV module, with marked local and global MPP

MPP (Maximum power point) of the solar panel consists of MPP voltage (Vmpp) and MPP current (Impp). Performing maximum power point tracking (MPPT), a solar inverter samples the output (I-V curve) from the solar cell and applies the proper electrical load to obtain maximum power.

An AC (alternating current) solar panel has a small DC to AC microinverter on the back and produces AC power with no external DC connector. AC modules are defined by Underwriters Laboratories as the smallest and most complete system for harvesting solar energy.[30][need quotation to verify]

Micro-inverters work independently to enable each panel to contribute its maximum possible output for a given amount of sunlight, but can be more expensive.[31]

Module interconnection

A connection example, a blocking diode is placed in series with each module string, whereas bypass diodes are placed in parallel with modules.

Module electrical connections are made with conducting wires that take the current off the modules and are sized according to the current rating and fault conditions, and sometimes include in-line fuses.

Panels are typically connected in series of one or more panels to form strings to achieve a desired output voltage, and strings can be connected in parallel to provide the desired current capability (amperes) of the PV system.

In string connections the voltages of the modules add, but the current is determined by the lowest performing panel. This is known as the "Christmas light effect". In parallel connections the voltages will be the same, but the currents add. Arrays are connected up to meet the voltage requirements of the inverters and to not greatly exceed the current limits.

Blocking and bypass diodes may be incorporated within the module or used externally to deal with partial array shading, in order to maximize output. For series connections, bypass diodes are placed in parallel with modules to allow current to bypass shaded modules which would otherwise severely limit the current. For paralleled connections, a blocking diode may be placed in series with each module's string to prevent current flowing backwards through shaded strings thus short-circuiting other strings. If three or more strings are connected in parallel, fuses are generally included on each string to eliminate the possibility of diode failures overloading the panels and wiring and causing fires.

Connectors

Outdoor solar panels usually include MC4 connectors, automotive solar panels may include an auxiliary power outlet and/or USB adapter and indoor panels may have a microinverter.

Efficiency

Radiation-dependent efficiency

Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar radiation range (specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence, much of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar modules, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into six to eight different wavelength ranges that will produce a different color of light, and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges.[41]

Performance and degradation

This chart illustrates the effect of clouds on solar energy production.

Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions (STC): irradiance of 1,000 W/m2, solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module temperature at 25 °C.[42] The actual voltage and current output of the module changes as lighting, temperature and load conditions change, so there is never one specific voltage at which the module operates. Performance varies depending on geographic location, time of day, the day of the year, amount of solar irradiance, direction and tilt of modules, cloud cover, shading, soiling, state of charge, and temperature. Performance of a module or panel can be measured at different time intervals with a DC clamp meter or shunt and logged, graphed, or charted with a chart recorder or data logger.

For optimum performance, a solar panel needs to be made of similar modules oriented in the same direction perpendicular to direct sunlight. Bypass diodes are used to circumvent broken or shaded panels and optimize output. These bypass diodes are usually placed along groups of solar cells to create a continuous flow.[43]

Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in W), open-circuit voltage (VOC), short-circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes), maximum power voltage (VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak power, (watt-peak, Wp), and module efficiency (%).

Open-circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage the module can produce when not connected to an electrical circuit or system.[44] VOC can be measured with a voltmeter directly on an illuminated module's terminals or on its disconnected cable.

The peak power rating, Wp, is the maximum output under standard test conditions (not the maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could measure approximately 1 by 2 metres (3 ft × 7 ft), will be rated from as low as 75 W to as high as 600 W, depending on their efficiency. At the time of testing, the test modules are binned according to their test results, and a typical manufacturer might rate their modules in 5 W increments, and either rate them at +/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%.[45][46][47]

Influence of temperature

The performance of a photovoltaic (PV) module depends on the environmental conditions, mainly on the global incident irradiance G in the plane of the module. However, the temperature T of the p–n junction also influences the main electrical parameters: the short circuit current ISC, the open circuit voltage VOC and the maximum power Pmax. In general, it is known that VOC shows a significant inverse correlation with T, while for ISC this correlation is direct, but weaker, so that this increase does not compensate for the decrease in VOC. As a consequence, Pmax decreases when T increases. This correlation between the power output of a solar cell and the working temperature of its junction depends on the semiconductor material, and is due to the influence of T on the concentration, lifetime, and mobility of the intrinsic carriers, i.e., electrons and gaps. inside the photovoltaic cell.

Temperature sensitivity is usually described by temperature coefficients, each of which expresses the derivative of the parameter to which it refers with respect to the junction temperature. The values of these parameters can be found in any data sheet of the photovoltaic module; are the following:

- β: VOC variation coefficient with respect to T, given by ∂VOC/∂T.

- α: Coefficient of variation of ISC with respect to T, given by ∂ISC/∂T.

- δ: Coefficient of variation of Pmax with respect to T, given by ∂Pmax/∂T.

Techniques for estimating these coefficients from experimental data can be found in the literature[48]

Studies have shown that while high temperatures negatively impact efficiency, colder temperatures can improve solar panel performance due to reduced electrical resistance within the cells. However, winter conditions introduce additional challenges such as snow accumulation and reduced daylight hours, which can offset the efficiency benefits of lower temperatures. Solar panels are still capable of generating power in winter, but overall output may be lower due to limited sunlight exposure and potential obstructions.[49]

Degradation

The ability of solar modules to withstand damage by rain, hail, heavy snow load, and cycles of heat and cold varies by manufacturer, although most solar panels on the U.S. market are UL listed, meaning they have gone through testing to withstand hail.[50]

Potential-induced degradation (also called PID) is a potential-induced performance degradation in crystalline photovoltaic modules, caused by so-called stray currents.[51] This effect may cause power loss of up to 30%.[52]

Advancements in photovoltaic technologies have brought about the process of "doping" the silicon substrate to lower the activation energy thereby making the panel more efficient in converting photons to retrievable electrons.[53]

Chemicals such as boron (p-type) are applied into the semiconductor crystal in order to create donor and acceptor energy levels substantially closer to the valence and conductor bands.[54] In doing so, the addition of boron impurity allows the activation energy to decrease twenty-fold from 1.12 eV to 0.05 eV. Since the potential difference (EB) is so low, the boron is able to thermally ionize at room temperatures. This allows for free energy carriers in the conduction and valence bands thereby allowing greater conversion of photons to electrons.

The power output of a photovoltaic (PV) device decreases over time. This decrease is due to its exposure to solar radiation as well as other external conditions. The degradation index, which is defined as the annual percentage of output power loss, is a key factor in determining the long-term production of a photovoltaic plant. To estimate this degradation, the percentage of decrease associated with each of the electrical parameters. The individual degradation of a photovoltaic module can significantly influence the performance of a complete string. Furthermore, not all modules in the same installation decrease their performance at exactly the same rate. Given a set of modules exposed to long-term outdoor conditions, the individual degradation of the main electrical parameters and the increase in their dispersion must be considered. As each module tends to degrade differently, the behavior of the modules will be increasingly different over time, negatively affecting the overall performance of the plant.[citation needed]

There are several studies dealing with the power degradation analysis of modules based on different photovoltaic technologies available in the literature. According to a recent study,[55] the degradation of crystalline silicon modules is very regular, oscillating between 0.8% and 1.0% per year.

On the other hand, if we analyze the performance of thin-film photovoltaic modules, an initial period of strong degradation is observed (which can last several months and even up to 2 years), followed by a later stage in which the degradation stabilizes, being then comparable to that of crystalline silicon.[56] Strong seasonal variations are also observed in such thin-film technologies because the influence of the solar spectrum is much greater. For example, for modules of amorphous silicon, micromorphic silicon or cadmium telluride, we are talking about annual degradation rates for the first years of between 3% and 4%.[57] However, other technologies, such as CIGS, show much lower degradation rates, even in those early years.

Mounting and tracking

Main articles: Photovoltaic mounting system and Solar tracker

Solar modules mounted on solar trackers

Workers install residential rooftop solar panels

Ground

Large utility-scale solar power plants frequently use ground-mounted photovoltaic systems. Their solar modules are held in place by racks or frames that are attached to ground-based mounting supports.[58][59] Ground based mounting supports include:

Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in concrete.
Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings
Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the solar module system in position and do not require ground penetration. This type of mounting system is well suited for sites where excavation is not possible such as capped landfills and simplifies decommissioning or relocation of solar module systems.

Solar array ground mounting

Vertical bifacial solar array

Agrivoltaic vertical bifacial solar panelsVertical Bifacial vs south facing solar array power output

Vertical Bifacial

South facing solar array

Vertical bifacial solar cells are oriented towards east and west to catch the sun's irradiance more efficiently in the morning and evening. Applications include agrivoltaics, solar fencing, highway and railroad noise dampeners and barricades.[60]

Roof

Main article: Rooftop solar power

Roof-mounted solar power systems consist of solar modules held in place by racks or frames attached to roof-based mounting supports.[61] Roof-based mounting supports include:

Rail mounts, which are attached directly to the roof structure and may use additional rails for attaching the module racking or frames.
Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the panel system in position and do not require through penetration. This mounting method allows for decommissioning or relocation of solar panel systems with no adverse effect on the roof structure.
All wiring connecting adjacent solar modules to the energy harvesting equipment must be installed according to local electrical codes and should be run in a conduit appropriate for the climate conditions

Solar canopy

Main article: Solar canopy

Solar canopy parking lot in New Haven at Hotel Marcel. There are EV level 2 chargers underneath the canopy and a 12-stall Tesla Supercharger behind.

Solar canopies are solar arrays which are installed on top of a traditional canopy. These canopies could be a parking lot canopy, carport, gazebo, Pergola, or patio cover.

There are many benefits, which include maximizing the space available in urban areas while also providing shade for cars. The energy produced can be used to create electric vehicle (EV) charging stations.[62]

Portable

Portable solar panels can ensure electric current, enough to charge devices (mobile, radio, ...) via USB-port or to charge a powerbank f.e.

Special features of the panels include high flexibility, high durability & waterproof characteristics. They are good for travel or camping.

A 5 V, 2 A, 10 W solar panel with USB port

Tracking

Solar trackers increase the energy produced per module at the cost of mechanical complexity and increased need for maintenance. They sense the direction of the Sun and tilt or rotate the modules as needed for maximum exposure to the light.[63][64]

Alternatively, fixed racks can hold modules stationary throughout the day at a given tilt (zenith angle) and facing a given direction (azimuth angle). Tilt angles equivalent to an installation's latitude are common. Some systems may also adjust the tilt angle based on the time of year.[65]

On the other hand, east- and west-facing arrays (covering an east–west facing roof, for example) are commonly deployed. Even though such installations will not produce the maximum possible average power from the individual solar panels, the cost of the panels is now usually cheaper than the tracking mechanism and they can provide more economically valuable power during morning and evening peak demands than north or south facing systems.[66]

Maintenance

General cleaning of ground-based solar panels at the Shanta Gold mine in TanzaniaDeeper level of cleaning with pressure washing of the car port solar panels at Googleplex, Mountain View, California

Solar panel conversion efficiency, typically in the 20% range, is reduced by the accumulation of dust, grime, pollen, and other particulates on the solar panels, collectively referred to as soiling. "A dirty solar panel can reduce its power capabilities by up to 30% in high dust/pollen or desert areas", says Seamus Curran, associate professor of physics at the University of Houston and director of the Institute for NanoEnergy, which specializes in the design, engineering, and assembly of nanostructures.[67] The average soiling loss in the world in 2018 is estimated to be at least 3% – 4%.[68]

Paying to have solar panels cleaned is a good investment in many regions, as of 2019.[68] However, in some regions, cleaning is not cost-effective. In California as of 2013 soiling-induced financial losses were rarely enough to warrant the cost of washing the panels. On average, panels in California lost a little less than 0.05% of their overall efficiency per day.[69]

There are also occupational hazards with solar panel installation and maintenance. A 2015–2018 study in the UK investigated 80 PV-related incidents of fire, with over 20 "serious fires" directly caused by PV installation, including 37 domestic buildings and 6 solar farms. In 1⁄3 of the incidents a root cause was not established and in a majority of others was caused by poor installation, faulty product or design issues. The most frequent single element causing fires was the DC isolators.[70]

A 2021 study by kWh Analytics determined median annual degradation of PV systems at 1.09% for residential and 0.8% for non-residential ones, almost twice that previously assumed.[71] A 2021 module reliability study found an increasing trend in solar module failure rates with 30% of manufacturers experiencing safety failures related to junction boxes (growth from 20%) and 26% bill-of-materials failures (growth from 20%).[72]

Cleaning

Cleaning methods for solar panels can be divided into 5 groups: manual tools, mechanized tools (such as tractor mounted brushes), installed hydraulic systems (such as sprinklers), installed robotic systems, and deployable robots. Manual cleaning tools are by far the most prevalent method of cleaning, most likely because of the low purchase cost. However, in a Saudi Arabian study done in 2014, it was found that "installed robotic systems, mechanized systems, and installed hydraulic systems are likely the three most promising technologies for use in cleaning solar panels".[73]

Novel self-cleaning mechanisms for solar panels are being developed. For instance, in 2019 via wet-chemically etched nanowires and a hydrophobic coating on the surface water droplets could remove 98% of dust particles, which may be especially relevant for applications in the desert.[74][75]

In March 2022, MIT researchers announced the development of a waterless cleaning system for solar panels and mirrors to address the issue of dust accumulation, which can reduce solar output by up to 30 percent in one month. This system utilizes electrostatic repulsion to detach dust particles from the panel's surface, eliminating the need for water or brushes. An electrical charge imparted to the dust particles by passing a simple electrode over the panel causes them to be repelled by a charge applied to the panel itself. The system can be automated using a basic electric motor and guide rails.[76]

Waste and recycling

There were 30 thousand tonnes of PV waste in 2021, and the annual amount was estimated by Bloomberg NEF to rise to more than 1 million tons by 2035 and more than 10 million by 2050.[77] For comparison, 750 million tons of fly ash waste was produced by coal power in 2022.[78] In the United States, around 90% of decommissioned solar panels end up in landfills as of 2023.[79] Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 95% of certain semiconductor materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.[80] Some private companies and non-profit organizations take-back and recycle end-of-life modules.[81] EU law requires manufacturers to ensure their solar panels are recycled properly. Similar legislation is underway in Japan, India, and Australia.[82] A 2023 Australian report said that there is a market for quality used panels and made recommendations for increasing reuse.[83]: 33

Recycling possibilities depend on the kind of technology used in the modules:

Silicon based modules: aluminum frames and junction boxes are dismantled manually at the beginning of the process. The module is then crushed in a mill and the different fractions are separated – glass, plastics and metals.[84] It is possible to recover more than 80% of the incoming weight.[85] This process can be performed by flat glass recyclers, since the shape and composition of a PV module is similar to flat glass used in the building and automotive industry. The recovered glass, for example, is readily accepted by the glass foam and glass insulation industry.
Non-silicon based modules: they require specific recycling technologies such as the use of chemical baths in order to separate the different semiconductor materials.[86] For cadmium telluride modules, the recycling process begins by crushing the module and subsequently separating the different fractions. This recycling process is designed to recover up to 90% of the glass and 95% of the semiconductor materials contained.[87] Some commercial-scale recycling facilities have been created in recent years by private companies.[88]

Since 2010, there is an annual European conference bringing together manufacturers, recyclers and researchers to look at the future of PV module recycling.[89][90]

Production

Module producer	Shipments in 2019 (GW)[91]
Jinko Solar	14.2
JA Solar	10.3
Trina Solar	9.7
LONGi Solar	9.0
Canadian Solar	8.5
Hanwha Q Cells	7.3
Risen Energy	7.0
First Solar	5.5
GCL System	4.8
Shunfeng Photovoltaic	4.0

The production of PV systems has followed a classic learning curve effect, with significant cost reduction occurring alongside large rises in efficiency and production output.[92]

With over 100% year-on-year growth in PV system installation, PV module makers dramatically increased their shipments of solar modules in 2019. They actively expanded their capacity and turned themselves into gigawatt GW players.[93] According to Pulse Solar, five of the top ten PV module companies in 2019 have experienced a rise in solar panel production by at least 25% compared to 2019.[94]

The basis of producing most solar panels is mostly on the use of silicon cells. These silicon cells are typically 10–20% efficient[95] at converting sunlight into electricity, with newer production models exceeding 22%.[96]

In 2018, the world's top five solar module producers in terms of shipped capacity during the calendar year of 2018 were Jinko Solar, JA Solar, Trina Solar, Longi solar, and Canadian Solar.[97]

Price

Swanson's law–stating that solar module prices have dropped about 20% for each doubling of installed capacity—defines the "learning rate" of solar photovoltaics.[98][99]

Standards

Standards generally used in photovoltaic modules:

IEC 61215 (crystalline silicon performance), 61646 (thin film performance) and 61730 (all modules, safety), 61853 (Photovoltaic module performance testing & energy rating)
ISO 9488 Solar energy—Vocabulary.
UL 1703 from Underwriters Laboratories
UL 1741 from Underwriters Laboratories
UL 2703 from Underwriters Laboratories
CE mark
Electrical Safety Tester (EST) Series (EST-460, EST-22V, EST-22H, EST-110).

Applications

Main article: Applications of photovoltaics

There are many practical applications for the use of solar panels or photovoltaics. It can first be used in agriculture as a power source for irrigation. In health care solar panels can be used to refrigerate medical supplies. It can also be used for infrastructure. PV modules are used in photovoltaic systems and include a large variety of electric devices:

Agrivoltaics
Solar canals
Photovoltaic power stations
Rooftop solar PV systems
Standalone PV systems
Solar hybrid power systems
Concentrated photovoltaics
Floating solar; water-borne solar panels
Solar planes
Solar-powered water purification
Solar-pumped lasers
Solar vehicles
Solar water heating
Solar panels on spacecraft and space stations
Solar landfill

Limitations

Impact on electricity network

With the increasing levels of rooftop photovoltaic systems, the energy flow becomes 2-way. When there is more local generation than consumption, electricity is exported to the grid. However, an electricity network traditionally is not designed to deal with the 2- way energy transfer. Therefore, some technical issues may occur. For example, in Queensland Australia, more than 30% of households used rooftop PV by the end of 2017. The duck curve appeared often for a lot of communities from 2015 onwards. An over-voltage issue may result as the electricity flows from PV households back to the network.[106] There are solutions to manage the over voltage issue, such as regulating PV inverter power factor, new voltage and energy control equipment at the electricity distributor level, re-conducting the electricity wires, demand side management, etc. There are often limitations and costs related to these solutions.

For rooftop solar to be able to provide enough backup power during a power cut a battery is often also required.[107]

Quality assurance

Solar module quality assurance involves testing and evaluating solar cells and Solar Panels to ensure the quality requirements of them are met. Solar modules (or panels) are expected to have a long service life between 20 and 40 years.[108] They should continually and reliably convey and deliver the power anticipated. Solar modules can be tested through a combination of physical tests, laboratory studies, and numerical analyses.[109] Furthermore, solar modules need to be assessed throughout the different stages of their life cycle. Various companies such as Southern Research Energy & Environment, SGS Consumer Testing Services, TÜV Rheinland, Sinovoltaics, Clean Energy Associates (CEA), CSA Solar International and Enertis provide services in solar module quality assurance."The implementation of consistent traceable and stable manufacturing processes becomes mandatory to safeguard and ensure the quality of the PV Modules" [110]

Stages of testing

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The lifecycle stages of testing solar modules can include: the conceptual phase, manufacturing phase, transportation and installation, commissioning phase, and the in-service phase. Depending on the test phase, different test principles may apply.

Conceptual phase

The first stage can involve design verification where the expected output of the module is tested through computer simulation. Further, the modules ability to withstand natural environment conditions such as temperature, rain, hail, snow, corrosion, dust, lightning, horizon and near-shadow effects is tested. The layout for design and construction of the module and the quality of components and installation can also be tested at this stage.

Manufacturing phase

Inspecting manufacturers of components is carried through visitation. The inspection can include assembly checks, material testing supervision and Non Destructive Testing (NDT). Certification is carried out according to ANSI/UL1703, IEC 17025, IEC 61215, IEC 61646, IEC 61701 and IEC 61730-1/-2.

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Place ID

Knowledge Panel ID (KG ID)

CID Number

Business Profile ID

Other GMB details

Review list display link

Review request link

Knowledge Panel page link

GMB Post URL

Ask question request URL

Questions and answers URL

Products

Services

Other GMB's at same address

GMB's with same website domain

GMB link with Place ID

GMB link with CID

External audit links

SEO audit links

Website cache with Google

Website content indexed by Google

Website content indexed by Google last week

Website content indexed by Google last month

Website content indexed by Google in the last 6 months

Analyze website traffic

Analyze mobile friendliness

Website audit links

Google Page Speed score

Domain name lookup

Technology used on website

Website schema(Structured data) analyzer

Website audit

Website history

Lumina Solar PA

Photos & videos

Questions and answers

Review summary